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现代刑事诉讼模式:法律模式的图解

时间:2023-07-28 理论教育 版权反馈
【摘要】:法律系统越类似,越可进行更精确的比较法分析,其所面临的共同问题也越多。它基本由一个等边三角形组成,每个顶点对应一个法律模式。在三个法系外,各个亚法系或者其他法律系统可按宏观比较法上的差距设于中心或置于合乎比例之距离。所得到的法律模式简图如下:[1]原文Three Patterns of Law: Taxonomy and Change in theWorld's Legal Systems,原载《美国比较法杂志》1997年冬季卷.译者感谢作者无偿授权翻译此文。

现代刑事诉讼模式:法律模式的图解

三种主要法系下的不同亚法系还可以不同的方式进行再划分。在依专业法律而治的法系内,大陆法系国家以及一些特殊的国家(如意大利、西班牙和希腊)通常比普通法系国家更具依政治法则而治之法系的某些特点。公法与私法的传统划分、政府在诉讼程序中的优势地位等便是此一现象的重要例证。[158]此外,在依政治法则而治的法系中,发展中的法律系统(特别是非洲)比转型中的法律系统更具依传统法律而治之法系的某些特点。例如,中国模式更多地呈现了依政治法则而治之法系的特点,而日本模式则更多地受到依专业法律而治之法律的影响。在该法系下,伊斯兰法比印度法更接近依政治法则而治的法系,而印度法则更多地受到依专业法律而治之法系的影响。

这一现象除可为教学提供有用的资料缩图外,还可进行有价值的方法论观察。法律系统越类似,越可进行更精确的比较法分析,其所面临的共同问题也越多。

缩图非常简单,可依复杂程度的不同作出分类。它基本由一个等边三角形组成,每个顶点对应一个法律模式。L代表依专业法律而治的法系,P代表依政治法则而治的法系,T代表依传统法律而治的法系。在三个法系外,各个亚法系或者其他法律系统可按宏观比较法上的差距设于中心或置于合乎比例之距离。所得到的法律模式简图如下:

[1]原文Three Patterns of Law: Taxonomy and Change in theWorld's Legal Systems,原载《美国比较法杂志》(American Journal of Comparative Law)1997年冬季卷(Vol.45, Issue 1, pp.5-44).译者感谢作者无偿授权翻译此文。

[2]Ugo Mattei,美国加州大学哈斯汀法学院比较法教授,意大利都灵大学民法教授。主要研究方向:比较法、法经济学。

[3]See E.A.Farnsworth, United States Contract Law, Juris Pub., 1991, 30 ff.

[4]See R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,p.545 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).文中有论:“荷兰新民法典的起草者以一种有趣的、创新的方式解决总则问题。他们决定在法典中设立总则部分,但总则的效力仅限于涉及遗产即财产权的法律领域。纯粹的人身权,特别是家庭法中的人身权,并不受荷兰新民法典总则部分所规定的规则及原则的约束。”

[5]See E.J.Weinrieb, The Idea of Private Law, Harvard University Press, 1995; Gordley,“Contract and Delict: Toward a Unified Theory of Liability”, Edinburgh Law Review 345(1997);R.Cooter,“Unity in Tort, Contract and Property: The Model of Precaution”, 73 Cal.L.R.1 (1985).

[6]See John B.Attanasio,“Symposyum on Globalization”, 46 J.Legal Educ.301 (1996).

[7]从某种意义上讲,分类是任何比较研究的终极目的:比较意味着必须论述特定研究对象之间的关系、相似点及不同点,参见R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials, Foundation Press,p.68 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).See also A.Gambaro & R.Sacco, Sistemi Giuridici Comparati, UTET,1996,21 ff.

[8]See R.Sacco,“Legal Formants: A Dynamic Approach to Comparative Law”, 39 Am.J.Comp.L.1 (1991);Constantinesco,“Introduzione al Diritto Comparato”, in Sistemi Giuridici Comparati, UTET,1996,21 ff.

[9]See Elisabetta Grande ed., Transplants, Innovation, and Legal Tradition in the Horn of Africa,Torino:L'Harmattan Italia, 1995.

[10]更多讨论可参见Mary Ann Glendon, Rights Talk: The Impoverishment of Political Discourse, Free Press,1991;也 可 参 见 John H.Langbein,“The Influence of Comparative Procedure in the United States”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.545, 547 (1995).

[11]See John H.Langbein,“The German Advantage in Civil Procedure”, 52 U.Chi.L.Rev.823 (1985).

[12]See Laura Nader & Harmony Ideology, Justice and Control in a Zapotec Mountain Village, Stanford University Press, 1990.

[13]Cf.K.Zweigert & H.Kötz, An Introduction to Comparative Law, Oxford University Press, 62 ff.(T.Weir ed., 1977).最近一篇对拉美法制度特点的研究,参见Castan Tobenas,“Contemporary Legal Systems of the Western World”, 25 Comp.Juridical Rev.105 (1988); R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials, Foundation Press,p.315 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).

[14]See R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,p.311 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).

[15]See R.David & C.Jauffret Spinosi, Les Grands Systemes de Droit Contemporains (10th ed.,1992).

[16]Cf.K.Zweigert & H.Kötz, An Introduction to Comparative Law, Oxford University Press, 62 ff.(T.Weir ed., 1977).最近一篇对拉美法制度特点的研究,参见Castan Tobenas,“Contemporary Legal Systems of the Western World”, 25 Comp.Juridical Rev.105 (1988).

[17]关于此点,请参见R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials, Foundation Press, p.315 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).

[18]请参见达维德·戈博在1996年9月22日密西根大学(University of Michigan)所举行的“美国比较法将往何处去?”(Comparative Law in the United States.Quo Vadis?)会上所作的评论。

[19]See Mary Ann Glendon, Rights Talk: The Impoverishment of Political Discourse, Free Press, 1991; see also John H.Langbein,“The Influence of Comparative Procedure in the United States”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.545, 547(1995).

[20]See John H.Langbein,“The German Advantage in Civil Procedure”, 52 U.Chi.L.Rev.823 (1985),p.547.

[21]关于对共产主义制度衰弱所造成之影响的深入分析(现仅限于古巴、中国、朝鲜、老挝和越南等国家),请参见R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog,Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,p.545(5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).关于后社会主义法是否依然构成一个法系的简短评论,Ajani & Mattei,“Codifying Property Law in the Process of Transition: Some Suggestions from Comparative Law and Economics”, 19 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev.117 (1995).深入的讨论,可参见意大利学者Ajani,“Il Modello Post-Socialista”, in Sistemi Giuridici Comparati, UTET,1996, p.19.

[22]See Lubman,“Studying Contemporary Chinese Law: Limits, Possibilities, and Strategies”, 39 Am.J.Comp.L.293 (1991).Cf.A.Hung Ye Chen, An Introduction to the Legal System of the People's Republic of China, LexisNexis,1992; Jonathan K.Ocko,“The Emerging Framework of Chinese Civil Law”, 52 L.& Contemp.Probs.1 (1989).

[23]See Gordley,“Common Law e Civil Law: una distinzione che stas scomparendo”, in Studi in Onore di Rodolfo Sacco (1994); Gordley,“Common Law und Civil Law: eine überholte Unterscheidung”, 3 Zeitschrift für europäisches privatrecht 498 (1993); Glenn,“La Civilization de la Common Law”, 45 Rev.Int'l Droit Comp.599(1993); Ajani,“By Chance and Prestige: Legal Transplants in Russia and Eastern Europe”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.93(1995); B.S.Markesinis, The Gradual Convergence, Oxford University Press,1995.这种全球性的趋同是否能够通过向法律程序的复杂性打开视角来得到证实是值得怀疑的,参见Langbein,“The German Advantage in Civil Procedure”, 52 U.Chi.L.Rev.823 (1985), p.545.也可参见Schlesinger,“The Past and the Future of Comparative Law”, 42 Am.J.Comp.L.477 (1995).

[24]参见P.De Cruz, A Modern Approach to Comparative Law, Kluwer Law International(1993),作者所提出的建议既未重新考虑传统的理念,也未论及现实的发展。

[25]这一点是最近才提出的,可参见W.Ewald,“Comparative Jurisprudence (I): What it is Like to Try a Rat?”, 143 U.Pa.L.Rev.1889 (1995);W.Ewald,“Comparative Jurisprudence (II): The Logic of Legal Transplants”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.489 (1995).

[26]J.Vanderlinden,“A propos des Familles de Droits en Droit Civil Comparé”, in Hommages A.R.Dekkers 363 (1982).更广泛的理论探讨也可参见J.Vanderlinden, Comparer les droits, Belgique, Kluwer et E.Story-Scientia (1995), 以及书评R.Sacco,“Comparer les droits.A propos de l'ouvrage de Jacques Vanderlinden”, 48 Rev.Int'l Droit Comp.659 (1996).

[27]F.Reyntjens,“Note sur l'Utilité d'Introdduire un Système Juridique‘Pluraliste’dans la Macro-comparaison des Droits”, Rev.Droit Int.et Droit Comp.41(1991).

[28]Traité de Droit Comparé 3 (1951).

[29]L.J.Constantinesco, La Science des Droits Conparés, Libr.Générale de Droit et de Jurisprudence,1983.

[30]See J.Griffiths,“What is Legal Pluralism?”, 24 J.Leg.Pluralism & Unofficial L.1 (1986); Engle-Merry,“Legal Pluralism”, 22 L.& Soc.Rev.869 (1988);“Symposium: State Transformation, Legal Pluralism, and Community Justice”, 1 Soc.& Leg.Studies 131 (1992).

[31]See A.Procida Mirabelli Di Lauro ed.,Sistemi Giuridici Comparati,UTET, 1996.提出以上观点及参与撰写卷本的作者有Gianmaria Ajani(后社会主义模式)、Francesco Castro(伊斯兰模式)、Marco Guadagni(多元模式)、Ugo Mattei(普通法)、Pier Giuseppe Monateri(民法)。

[32]See A.Procida Mirabelli Di Lauro ed.,Sistemi Giuridici Comparati, UTET, 1996.

[33]K.Zweigert & H.Kötz, Einführung in die Rechtsvergleichung, Mohr Siebrek Ek; Revised (3d ed.1996).

[34]See Ugo Mattei,“Why the Wind Changed: Intellectual Leadership in Western Law”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.199 (1994).

[35]See also Mattei,“Etnocentrismo, Neutralità, Discriminazione: tensioni nel diritto occidentale”, 146 Giurisprudenza Italiana IV 223 (1994).

[36]参见马克斯·韦伯在《论经济与社会中的法律》(On Law in Economy and Society)中给社会组织下的定义。

[37]See De Sola Canizares,Introduccion al Derecho Comparado, Revue internationale de droit comparé,1954.

[38]这就是为何我在此点上不考虑其他社会规则渊源的原因,如服饰或广告。此外我也不阐释这些模式的根源问题。至于传统规则,许多学者认为,公众认为是传统的许多社会组织规则事实上是近些年才出现的。根据这一解释,传统有时并非自发的、古老的,而是规划的、近期的。参见E.Hobsbawm & T.Ranger eds.,The Invention of Tradition,3d ed.,Cambridge University Press,1992.

[39]我不想对“何为法”这一问题进行诸多枯燥、无结果的讨论。基于宏观比较的目的,我假定法律包括世界法律系统中所有承担法律功能的法则总和。亦即,所有可进行足够的个人激励以规范个人社会行为的规则都是法律。

[40]基于此,劳拉·纳德(Laura Nader)介绍了“控制过程”(Controlling Processes)的概念,参见Laura Nader, Harmony Ideology: Justice and Control in a Zapotec Mountain Village, Stanford University Press,1990.对于这种极其广义界定法及秩序概念的有趣应用,参见Weyrauch & Bell,“Autonomous Lawmaking: The Case of the Gypsies”, 103 Yale L.J.323 (1993).

[41]See R.Sacco,“Mute Law”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.455 (1995) [以纪念施勒辛格(Schlesinger)]; see also R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials, Foundation Press,p.545 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994); more recently, J.Vanderlinden,“A propos des Familles de Droits en Droit Civil Comparé”, in Hommages A.R.Dekkers 363 (1982).更广泛的理论探讨也可参见J.Vanderlinden, Comparer les droits, Belgique, Kluwer et E.Story-Scientia,1995, 以及书评R.Sacco,“Comparer les droits.A propos de l'ouvrage de Jacques Vanderlinden”, 48 Rev.Int'l Droit Comp.659 (1996).

[42]See Kitamura,“Brèves réflexions sur la méthode de comparaison franco-japonaise”, 47 Rev.Int.Droit Comp.861 (1995); see also Wagatzuma & Rosett,“The Implications of Apology: Law and Culture in Japan and the United States”, 20 L.& Soc.Rev.461 (1986).

[43]See A.Gambaro & R.Sacco, Sistemi Giuridici Comparati, UTET,1996,21 ff.

[44]See R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,p.545 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).Alan Watson, Legal Transplants, University of Georgia Press,1974.

[45]意大利比较法学家萨科在其《比较法导论》1992年第5版中提出了一个他命名为“法律共振峰”(Legal Formants)的学说。“共振峰”一词引自语音学,指声腔的共振频率。“法律共振峰”即指影响法律的各种成分。他认为人们往往讲法律是一种规则,但事实上,法律不仅由制定法规则、判例和法学家论述构成,而且还由立法者、法官、法学家所作出的各种非行为规则(如法律解释等)构成。再有,同一国家或不同国家的这些成分往往是可变的、不协调的。——译者注

[46]See A.Gambaro & R.Sacco, Sistemi Giuridici Comparati, UTET,1996, pp.20-21.括号为作者所上。

[47]因未对每种法律系统内三种法律模式的数量比例进行经验研究,所谓的主导或支配地位仅指三种法律模式内部竞争的结果,这只能是比较意义上的。从绝对意义上讲,专业法律在西方法律传统中是否比其他模式更能促进制度框架达成更多的交易,这只能使用更精细的工具以作出解答。这种精细的工具应能计算出替代制度(如我所提出的法律模式)的交易成本。我们还远未达到这种程度。参见D.North, Institutions,Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press, 1990.因为我分类的目的是进行比较,所以对比较的标准也感到满意。

[48]从另一方面讲,这样一种决定显然和政治法则占主导地位的法系相吻合,参见P.De Cruz, A Modern Approach to Comparative Law, Kluwer Law International, 1993.颇为有趣的是,在对判决和再次逮捕决定进行为期几周的激烈讨论后,最高法院最终撤销了布里克案件的判决,理由是法官在判决作出前在媒体上表达了对布里克友好的态度。最高法院的判决再次重申并论证司法部部长颇受争议的行为合法。

[49]See B.A.Ackerman, We the People, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1991.

[50]See Nader & Grande,“Current Illusions and Delusions about Conflict Management”, in W.Zartman ed.,Traditional Cures for Modern Conflicts: African Conflict“Medicine”, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999.

[51]See R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,p.545 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).

[52]See T.Ansay & D.Wallace, Introduction to Turkish Law,Kluwer Law International, 1966.

[53]See R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,p.78 (Supp.1994).See also A.Gambaro & R.Sacco, Sistemi Giuridici Comparati, UTET, 1996,21 ff.

[54]如参见Elisabetta Grande ed., Transplants, Innovation, and Legal Tradition in the Horn of Africa,Torino:L'Harmattan Italia, 1995,编者在该文中所作的按语。

[55]因笔者愚钝无法进行更详细的解读,亦因此可能导致许多对我试图分类之法律系统的误判。我所作的一些选择大部分是凭借直觉和感性,而非通过某些难以获得的计量工具。参见D.North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press, 1990.因此,许多读者可能质疑或不同意我的选择。但我必须从一开始便作一说明,分类的实际内容以及我作的选择主要是为了阐明。

[56]See Kokkini Iatridou, Een Inleiding Tot Het Rechtsvergeijkende Onderzoek, Kluwer, 1988.

[57]See e.g., A.J.Van Der Helm & V.M.Meyer, Comparer en droit: essai méthodologique, Strasbourg: Cerdic., 1991.

[58]戈德雷(Gordley)最近很清晰地表达了此一观点,参见Gordley,“Comparative Legal Research: Its Function in the Development of Harmonized Law”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.555 (1995).

[59]See H.Jacob, E.Blankenburg, D.M.Provine & J.Sanders, Courts, Law and Politics in Comparative Perspective,Yale University Press, 1996.

[60]See R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,337 ff.(5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).

[61]Mirjan Damaska, The Faces of Justice and State Authority, Yale University Press, 1986.

[62]See Mary Ann Glendon, Rights Talk: The Impoverishment of Political Discourse, Free Press, 1991; see also Langbein,“The Influence of Comparative Procedure in the United States”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.545, 547 (1995).

[63]See Gambaro,“Alcune Novità in Materia di Comparazione”, 78 Rivista Diritto Commerciale 297 (1980);对私法更宽泛的解释, 参见 F.A.Hayek, Law, Legislation, and Liberty, The University of Chicago Press, 1973.也可参见E.J.Weinrib, The Idea of Private Law, Harvard University Press, 1995.

[64]See R.Sacco,“Mute Law”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.455 (1995) [以纪念施勒辛格(Schlesinger)]; see also R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska, & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials, Foundation Press,p.545 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994); more recently, J.Vanderlinden,“A propos des Familles de Droits en Droit Civil Comparé”, in Hommages A.R.Dekkers 363 (1982).更广泛的理论探讨也可参见J.Vanderlinden, Comparer les droits, Belgique, Kluwer et E.Story-Scientia,1995, 以及书评R.Sacco,“Comparer les droits.A propos de l'ouvrage de Jacques Vanderlinden”, 48 Rev.Int'l Droit Comp.659 (1996).

[65]西式的法律规则可能成为我所说的依专业法律而治之法系的另外一种替代方式。参见B.A.Ackerman, We the People, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1991; Nader & Grande,“Current Illusions and Delusions about Conflict Management”, in W.Zartman ed.,Traditional Cures for Modern Conflicts: African Conflict“Medicine”, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999; R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials, Foundation Press,p.545 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994),以及附随文本。

[66]正如我们在下文中即将看到的,高级别决策与低级别决策之间的区分很难清晰,仅是作为一种分析工具。参见机构与组织的区别:D.North,Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press,1990.

[67]最终的批判来自P.Bohannan, Justice and Judgement among the Tiv, Oxford University Press, 1957.对于人类学家的这一伟大尝试,可参见Falk Moore,“Legal Systems of the World: An Introductory Guide to Classifications, Typological Interpretations, and Bibliographical Sources”, in L.Lipson & S.Wheeler eds., Law and the Social Sciences, Russell Sage Foundation, 1986.关于律师取得法律人类学奖学金的相关指导,可参见F.Snyder,“Law and Anthropology: A Review”, E.U.I.Working Paper Law, No.93/4.

[68]See A.Gambaro & R.Sacco, Sistemi Giuridici Comparati, UTET, 1996, 21 ff.

[69]See Guadagni,“Legal Pluralism”, in P.Newman ed.,The New Palgrave A Dictionary of Economics and the Law, Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1998.

[70]此类现象之一便是各种法律层次间的竞争,参见Elisabetta Grande ed., Transplants, Innovation, and Legal Tradition in the Horn of Africa, Torino: L'Harmattan Italia, 1995.这种竞争关系在西方法律规则的制定中亦可观察到,参见Ugo Mattei, Comparative Law and Economics, University of Michigan Press, 1997, and especially Grande,“L'apporto dell'antropologia allo conoscenza studio del diritto”, Rivista Critica Diritto Privato 467-99 (1996).

[71]此一观点为萨科教授所提出,参见R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials, Foundation Press,p.68 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).还 可 参 见A.Gambaro &R.Sacco, Sistemi Giuridici Comparati, UTET,1996,21 ff,以及参见R.Sacco,“Mute Law”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.455 (1995) [以纪念施勒辛格(Schlesinger)]; more recently, J.Vanderlinden,“A propos des Familles de Droits en Droit Civil Comparé”, in Hommages A.R.Dekkers 363 (1982).更广泛的理论探讨也可参见J.Vanderlinden,Comparer les droits, Belgique, Kluwer et E.Story-Scientia,1995, 以及书评R.Sacco,“Comparer les droits.A propos de l'ouvrage de Jacques Vanderlinden”, 48 Rev.Int'l Droit Comp.659 (1996).萨科教授将此类隐藏的规则称为“隐型规则”(cryptotypes)。

[72]新近的研究成果可参见W.J.Mommsen & J.A.De Moor eds.,European Expansion and the Law: The Encounter of European and Indigenous Law in 19th and 20th Century Africa and Asia, Berg Publishers, 1992.

[73]See F.Feldbrugge,“Russian Law: The End of the Soviet System and the Role of the Law”, in 45 Law in Eastern Europe Series 202 (1993).

[74]See Henderson,“The Future of Comparative Law”, 1 Pacific Rim L.Rev.1 (1993).

[75]See R.B.Schlesinger,H.Baade,M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,p.310 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).

[76]众所周知,任命高级别法院法官是上议院大法官的权力。大法官至少在理论上应仅依业务和司法能力作出任命决定。尽管如此,英国的评论家们仍强调,政治盟友在法官选举中扮演很重要的角色,参见P.S.Atiyah, Law and Modern Society, Oxford University Press,1995,p.14.

[77]See generally H.J.Berman, Faith and Order: The Reconciliation of Law and Religion, William B.Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1993.

[78]See Mayer,“Islam and the State”, 12 Cardozo L.Rev.1015 (1991); see also D.C.Clarke,“GATT Membership for China?”, 17 U.Puget Sound L.Rev.517, 527 & 528 (1994).Rosenn,“Brazil's Legal Culture: The Jeito Revisted”, 2 Florida Int.L.J.2-43 (1984).(www.zuozong.com)

[79]参见J.M.Ramseyer, Japan's Political Marketplace, Harvard University Press, 1993以及他在日本法律方面的其他著作;关于伊斯兰法律方面的著作,可参见D.Horowitz,“The Qur'am and the Common Law: Islamic Law Reform and the Theory of Legal Change”, 42 Am.J.Comp.L.543 (1994).

[80]See Luney,“Traditions and Foreign Influences: Systems of Law in China and Japan”, 52 L.& Contemp.Probs.129 (1989).

[81]这是托克维尔所作的经典评论,参见A.De Tocqueville, Democracy in America,G.Laurence trans.,J.P.Mayer ed., Doubleday & Company, 1969.

[82]See M.Horwitz, The Transformations of American Law, Oxford University Press, 1992.

[83]通常可参见C.H.Pritchett, The Roosevelt Court: A Study in Judicial Politics and Values 1937-1947, Macmillan Company, 1948.

[84]See Brietzke,“Administrative Law and Development: The American‘Model' Evaluated”, 26 How.L.J.645,647 (1983).P.H.Brietzke, Law, Development and the Ethiopian Revolution, Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1982.

[85]和大多数拉美国家一样,在智利,法院在制度设计中处于弱势地位,这一点并不新奇。参见C.Veliz, The Centralist Tradition of Latin America, Princeton University Press,1980.

[86]See H.Berman, Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition, Harvard University Press, 1983; Gambaro,“Il Successo del Giurista”, 5 Foro Italiano (1983).

[87]吉诺·格拉(Gino Gorla)是率先表达此观点的学者之一。参见Gino Gorla, Diritto Privato e Diritto Comune Europeo,Giuffrè, 1982; Gorla & Moccia,“A Revisiting of the Comparison between Continental Law and English Law (16th-19th Century)”, 2 J.Leg.His.143 (1981).

[88]See A.Gambaro,“Il Successo del Giurista”, 5 Foro Italiano (1983); H.Berman, Law and Revolution:The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition, Harvard University Press, 1983.

[89]See J.Baker, An Introduction to English Legal History,3d ed.,Oxford University Press,1990,pp.112-113[关于禁止的案例引用del Roy (1608) 12 Co.Rep.63].

[90]当然作为一个理论问题,很容易注意到在一种批判的语境下,政治在司法判决中亦发挥重要作用,参见H.Jacob, E.Blankenburg, D.M.Provine & J.Sanders, Courts, Law and Politics in Comparative Perspective, Yale University Press, 1996.在美国,此一论断曾在凯斯·孙斯坦(Cass Sunstein)的许多著作提及。这就是典型的美国法律现实主义。

[91]F.I.Michelman,“Brennan and Democracy, Inaugural Lecture of the Brennan Center Symposium on Constitutional Law”, Boalt Hall, U.C.Berkeley(November 4, 1996).

[92]关于这一讨论,请参见Ugo Mattei,“Why the Wind Changed: Intellectual Leadership in Western Law”,43 Am.J.Comp.L.199 (1994).

[93]See C.H.Pritchett, The Roosevelt Court: A Study in Judicial Politics and Values 1937-1947, Macmillan Company, 1948.

[94]See Hart & Sacks, The Legal Process, 10th ed.,Harvard University Press,1958; P.M.Bator et al., Hart and Wechsler's: The Federal Courts and the Federal System,3rd ed.,Foundation Press,1988.

[95]关于术语反映法系的根本哲学及其对比较法研究的重要性,参见G.Fletcher, Basic Concepts of Legal Thought,Oxford University Press,1996,p.5.

[96]See H.Berman, Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition, Harvard University Press, 1983; A.Gambaro,“Il Successo del Giurista”, 5 Foro Italiano (1983).一些学者认为,分离时间可追溯至公元前3世纪的罗马法,参见Corsale,“Ordine Sociale e Mediazione Giuridica”, in C.Pontecorvo,Regole é Socializzazione, Loescher 81 (1984);也可参见R.Sacco, Modelli Notevoli di Societa, CEDAM, 1991,p.39.

[97]See J.Gordley & A.Thompson, Gratian, The Treatise on Law with the Ordinary Gloss, The Catholic University of America Press, 1994.See in general H.J.Berman, Faith and Order: The Reconciliation of Law and Religion,William B.Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1993.

[98]See H.Berman, Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition, Harvard University Press, 1983;A.Gambaro,“Il Successo del Giurista”, 5 Foro Italiano (1983).

[99]“在大多数非西方的传统法律系统中,但不仅限于宗教法律系统,均不存在此一特征。且法律的独立性与大多数的马克思主义法理论亦不兼容。”参见R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials, Foundation Press, p.80 (Supp.1994).

[100]“例如,中国的传统观念儒家传统)认为,法律作为维护社会秩序之装置并非首选,诉讼之事应尽可能避免。”关于这一经典观点可参见前注30。

[101]See Brietzke,“Administrative Law and Development: The American‘Model' Evaluated”, 26 How.L.J.645, 647 (1983).P.H.Brietzke, Law, Development and the Ethiopian Revolution, Bucknell University Press,1982.

[102]For the American case, see Jesse H.Choper, Securing Religious Liberty: Principles for Judicial Interpretation of the Religious Clauses, the University of Chicago Press,1995.

[103]Cf.I.Englard, Religious Law in the Israel Legal System,Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Faculty of Law,Harry Sacher Institute for Legislative Research and Comparative Law,1975; Kirschenbaum & Trafimow,“The Sovereign Power of the State: A Proposed Theory of Accommodation in Jewish Law”, 12 Cardozo L.Rev.925, 926 (1991);Frimer,“The Role of the Lawyer in Jewish Law”, 1 J.L.& Rel.297 (1983).关于以色列的混合法系,参见Barak,“The Tradition and Culture of the Israeli Legal System”, in A.Rabello ed., European Legal Traditions and Israel, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1993.

[104]如果宗教法与专业法产生冲突,这自然会引发一些问题。对比讨论可参见Artz,“Religious Freedom in a Religious State: The Case of Israel in Comparative Constitutional Perspective”, 9 Wis.Int.L.J.1 (1990); Levine,“Abortion in Israel: Community, Right, and the Context of Compromise”, 19 L.& Soc.Inq.313 (1994); D.E.Artz,“Growing a Constitution: Reconciling Liberty and Community in Israel and United States”, 19 L.& Soc.Inq.253(1994).在对宗教自由的比较研究中,最好使用一些不同的分类标准,如设有国教的法律系统或者未设国教的法律系统。

[105]关于习惯法及其西方化的分析,可参见J.Olson & R.Wilson, Native Americans in the Twentieth Century, Brigham Young University Press, 1984;关于这方面以及其与联邦法律关系的制度讨论,可参见D.Getches, D.Rosenfeld & C.Wilkinson, Cases and Materials on Federal Indian Law, 2d ed.,West Publishing Company,1986; F.Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law,3d ed., Lexisnexis,1982.

[106]See J.M.Derrett, Introduction to Modern Hindu Law, Oxford University Press,1963.

[107]See H.Jacob, E.Blankenburg, H.M.Kritzer, D.M.Provine & J.Sanders, Courts, Law and Politics in Comparative Perspective, Yale University Press, 1996.

[108]See Michael Mandel,“Debate: Marxism and the Rule of Law”, 15 L.& Soc.Equity 633 (1990);C.Sypnowich, The Concept of Socialist Law, Clarendon Press, 1990; O.S.Ioffe & P.B.Maggs, Soviet Law in Theory and Practice, Oceana Publications,1983.See also Elisabetta Grande ed.,Transplants, Innovation, and Legal Tradition in the Horn of Africa,Torino:L'Harmattan Italia,1995;Mary Ann Glendon, Rights Talk: The Impoverishment of Political Discourse, Free Press, 1991, p.29; see also J.H.Langbein,“The Influence of Comparative Procedure in the United States”,43 Am.J.Comp.L.545, 547 (1995),29 ff.;Yash Chai,“The Role of Law in Transition of Societies: The African Experience”, 35 J.African L.(1991);L.Balcerowicz,“Understanding Post-Communist Transition”, 5 J.Dem.75 (1994).

[109]See Trebilcock,“What Makes Poor Countries Poor?: The Role of Institutional Capital in Economic Development”, in E.Buscaglia & R.Cooter eds., Law and Economics of Development, Jai Pr,1997.

[110]参见特里比尔科克(Trebilcock)对此进行的讨论。

[111]See R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,p.80 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).该文的引注,有兴趣可阅读1989年之后的文章:Markowitz,“Law and Glasnost: Some Thoughts about the Future of Judicial Review under Socialism”, 23 L.& Soc.Rev.399 (1989).对于在此一背景下法律日常运作的一种详细描述,参见Mayer,“Islam and the State”, 12 Cardozo L.Rev.1015 (1991);还可参见D.C.Clarke,“GATT Membership for China?”,17 U.Puget Sound L.Rev.517, 527& 528 (1994).Rosenn,“Brazil's Legal Culture: The Jeito Revisted”, 2 Florida Int.L.J.2-43 (1984).

[112]近来关于“发展法”的著作准确地指出了这种现象,如参见P.Ebow Bondzi-Simpson ed., The Law and Economic Development in the Third World, Praeger,1992; S.Adelman & A.Paliwala eds., Law and Crisis in the Third World, Bowker, 1993.

[113]参见一篇有趣的文章:F.H.Foster,“Information and the Problem of Democracy: The Russian Experience”, 44 Am.J.Comp.L.243 (1996).该文不管怎样都将依政治法则而治之法系的某些方面视为变态,而非差异。

[114]最近在盐湖城所举行的一次比较法研讨会上,一份关于白俄罗斯维护宪法法院特权、谋求法治的声明向与会者征集签名。

[115]关于非正式制度在决定行为时的作用,参见D.North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press, 1990.为理解非正式制度在私法化中的作用,参见A.Rapaczynski,“The Roles of the State and the Market in Establishing Property Rights”, 10 J.Econ.Perspectives 87 (1996).

[116]See Peteri,“The Reception of Soviet Law in Eastern Europe: Similarities and Differences between Soviet and Eastern European Law”, 61 Tulane L.R.1397 (1987); see also, Szabo,“La Science du Droit au Cours du Dernier Siècle”,Hongrie and Grzibowski,“La Scienza del Diritto Nell'ultimo Secolo: Polonia”,both in M.Rotondi ed., Inchieste di Diritto Comparato, CEDAM, 1976;R.Sacco,“The Romanist Substratum in the Civil Law of the Socialist Countries”, 14 Rev.Socialist L.65 (1988).东德亦在依政治法则而治之法系之外。专业法律已在经济和政治投资中得以完全的修复。

[117]See A.Prezewoski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reform in Latin America and Eastern Europe, Cambridge University Press, 1993.一个常见的问题是宪法制度的引入。参见Brunner,“Development of a Constitutional Judiciary in Eastern Europe”, 18 Rev.Cent.& East Eur.L.535 (1993); 还可参见Sokolewicz,“Democracy, Rule of Law and Constitutionality in Post Communist Societies of Eastern Europe”, 2 Droit Pol.Cont.522(1990).

[118]一个有趣的观点可参见I.Pogany,“Constitutional Reform in Central and Eastern Europe: Hungary's Transition to Democracy”, 42 Int.Comp.L.Q.332 (1993).也可参见C.Clague & G.C.Rausser, The Emergence of Market Economies in Eastern Europe, Blackwell Pub., 1992.

[119]See C.Veliz, The Centralist Tradition in Latin America, Princeton University Press, 1980.

[120]See A.M.Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, Yale University Press, 1962.

[121]依这种发展理论,资本刺激型的发达经济体将经历较低的边际资本生产,因此在这些国家,投资率与经济增长将会比较低。相反,在基本没有单位劳动资本的发展中国家,单位时间的发展效率将会加快。参见G.W.Scully, Constitutional Environments and Economic Growth, Princeton University Press, 1992.

[122]关于数据,请参见《世界银行年度发展报告》。

[123]See Trebilcock,“What Makes Poor Countries Poor?: The Role of Institutional Capital in Economic Development”, in E.Buscaglia & R.Cooter eds., Law and Economics of Development, Jai Pr, 1997.See e.g., P.Ebow Bondzi-Simpson ed., The Law and Economic Development in the Third World, Praeger, 1992; S.Adelman & A.Paliwala eds., Law and Crisis in the Third World, Bowker, 1993.

[124]See R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,p.71 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994)(这种目标否认了共产主义国家的一个主要特征)。

[125]See D.C.Clarke,“GATT Membership for China?”, 17 U.Puget Sound L.Rev.527 (1994).

[126]对于拉美法系所存在的共同问题,参见A.S.Golbert & Y.Nun, Latin American Laws and Institutions,Praeger Publishers,1982; K.Karst, Latin American Legal Institutions: Problems for Comparative Studies, Los Angeles,University of California, Latin American Center,1966; P.J.Eder, A Comparative Study of Anglo-American and Latin American Law, New York University Press,1950;有一种观点将欧洲地中海的一些法律系统纳入发展中的法律,参见J.H.Merryman, Law and Social Change in Mediterranean Europe and Latin America, Stanford Law School, 1979.关于发展的规律,可参见R.B.Seidman, The State Law and Development, Croom Helm, 1978.

[127]对于非洲国家和拉美国家在侵权法领域的一些共同问题和区别,参见Bussani & Mattei,“Making the Other Path Efficient: Economic Analysis and Tort Law in Less Developed Countries”, in E.Buscaglia & R.Cooter eds., Law and Economics of Development, Jai Pr, 1997.

[128]这些便是雷廷斯(Reyntjens) 所称的多元主义的国家,参见F.Reyntjens,“Note sur l'Utilité d'Introdduire un Système Juridique‘Pluraliste’dans la Macro-comparaison des Droits”, Rev.Droit Int.et Droit Comp.41(1991).关于法律多元主义的论述,经典的著作依然是M.B.Hooker, Legal Pluralism: An Introduction to Colonial and Neo-Colonial Laws, Clarendon Press, 1975.

[129]See J.H.Merryman et al., The Civil Law Tradition, Stanford University Press, 1994.

[130]See O.Lee, Legal and Moral Systems in Asian Customary Law, Chinese Materials Center, 1978.

[131]See Bussani & Mattei,“Making the Other Path Efficient: Economic Analysis and Tort Law in Less Developed Countries”, in E.Buscaglia & R.Cooter eds., Law and Economics of Development, Jai Pr, 1997; and Elisabetta Grande ed.,Transplants, Innovation, and Legal Tradition in the Horn of Africa, Torino: L'Harmattan Italia, 1995; see also Rodolfo Sacco, Il Diritto Africano, UTET, 1995; Guadagni,“Legal Pluralism”, in P.Newman ed., The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics and the Law, Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1998.

[132]See Bootaan,“La Costituzione Somala del 1990”, in Elisabetta Grande ed., Transplants, Innovation, and Legal Tradition in the Horn of Africa,Torino: L'Harmattan Italia, 1995, p.131; Id.,“Somalia, Stato Regionale o Cantonizzazione Clanica?”, in Studi in onore di Rodolfo Sacco, supra n.21, p.117.

[133]See D.North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press,1990, pp.34,46 ff.

[134]See J.Baker, An Introduction to English Legal History,3d ed.,Oxford University Press,1990,pp.112-113.J.P.Dawson, the Oracles of the Law,1968.参见H.Berman, Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition, Harvard University Press, 1983; A.Gambaro,“Il Successo del Giurista”, 5 Foro Italiano(1983).一些学者认为,分离时间可追溯至公元前3世纪的罗马法,参见Corsale,“Ordine Sociale e Mediazione Giuridica”, in C.Pontecorvo: Regole e Socializzazione, Loescher 81(1984); 也可参见R.Sacco, Modelli Notevoli di Societa, CEDAM, 1991,p.39.

[135]See D.R.Kelley, The Human Measure: Social Thought in the Western Legal Tradition, Harvard University Press, 1990.早期意识参见Foustel de Coulange, La Cité Antique, Hachette, 1864, 466 Fr.It.

[136]当然可能会出现一些重叠,而且在通常情况下也不可能作出完全准确的界限和定义。在特定的领域,律师、牧师和其他社会主体之间可能会产生一些竞争。比如,在涉及婚姻的案件中,牧师和调解者可能会与律师竞争,而在涉及精神状况的案件中,精神分析学家可能与牧师竞争。

[137]See Laura Nader, Harmony Ideology, Justice and Control in a Zapotec Mountain Village, Stanford University Press, 1990.

[138]泰国、老挝、柬埔寨、缅甸、印度尼西亚、菲律宾和马来西亚等国家并非儒教国家。印度尼西亚可视为伊斯兰法国家而被划入依传统法律而治的法系。菲律宾应纳入何种法系则颇受质疑,因为其早期受到依专业法律而治之法系的深刻影响。至于我所提及的其他亚洲国家,尽管它们的法律系统倾向于依政治法则而治的法系,但我却将其划入依传统法律而治的法系。当然,笔者才疏学浅,这仅是个人猜测。

[139]有关伊斯兰法的著述浩如烟海。查阅简要的概论以及大量的参考书目,请参见Castro,“Diritto Musulmano”,Digesto IV(1988);J.Schacht, An Introduction to Islamic Law, Cambridge University Press, 1981.

[140]参见F.Upham, Law and Social Change in Post-War Japan, Harvard University Press, 1987(二战后日本的法律与社会变化)。在该文中,作者在一次认真的电子邮件交流中始终坚持将日本法划入依传统法律而治的法系。作者指出,就诉讼率以及人均律师数量来看,当下日本的传统法特质比战前更加明显。在一篇尚未发表的文章中,珀姆(Upham)认为,在日本,纠纷解决方法比过去两个世纪变得更加不正式(因此也更加具有传统法的特征),并且认为,被日本人视为传统的家庭结构和就业结构在明治维新时期和德川时期确实不存在。不管如何,参见 E.Hobsbawm & T.Ranger eds.,The Invention of Tradition, 3d ed.,Cambridge University Press,1992.

[141]See H.T.Scogin,“Civil Law in Traditional China: History and Theory”, in K.Bernhardt & P.C.Huang,Civil Law in Qing and Republican China, Stanford University Press, 1994, p.13ff.;关于中国遗产的大多数论文(P.S.Ropp ed., 1991); W.C.Jones, The Great Quing Code,Clarendon Press,1994.

[142]See D.F.Henderson,“The Role of Lawyers in Japan”(未刊稿)。

[143]关于日本方面的相关研究可参见Ramseyer-Rasmusen,“Judicial Independence in Civil Law Regimes:Econo metrics from Japan”, Chicago Law and Economics Working Papers, No.37 2d Series (1996).关于日本法律学者的不同立场,可参见J.O.Haley,“Dispute Resolution in Japan: Lessons in Autonomy”, 17 Canada.United States Law Journal 443 (1991)和他的其他著作,以及D.亨德森(D.Henderson)的大量作品中。关于日本法律现状的生动论述,可参见F.Upham,“The Development of Japanese Legal Studies in American Law Schools”, Reischauer Institute Symposyum (1996).

[144]See Trebilcock,“What Makes Poor Countries Poor?: The Role of Institutional Capital in Economic Development”, in E.Buscaglia & R.Cooter eds., Law and Economics of Development, Jai Pr,1997.

[145]See Minxin Pei,“The Puzzle of East Asian Exceptionalism”, 5 J.Dem.90 (1994).

[146]See Shishido,“Institutional Investors and Corporate Governance in Japan”, in T.Baums et al.eds., Institutional Investors and Corporate Governance, Berlin: New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1994,p.665.

[147]See R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials,Foundation Press,p.545 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).

[148]D.F.Henderson, Conciliation and Japanese Law, Association for Asian Studies, 1965; Zhiping Liang,“Explicating Law: A Comparative Perspective of Chinese and Western Legal Culture”, 3 J.Chinese L.55 (1989);J.O.Haley, Authority without Power: Law and the Japanese Paradox, Oxford University Press, 1991.

[149]我们也可使用同样的二分法来描述依专业法律而治的法系与依政治法则而治的法系之间的区别。所不同的是,在依政治法则而治的法系中,政治思想代替了宗教传统,参见Laura Nader, Harmony Ideology,Justice and Control in a Zapotec Mountain Village, Stanford University Press, 1990.

[150]See H.Jacob, E.Blankenburg, D.M.Provine & J.Sanders, Courts, Law and Politics in Comparative Perspective,Yale University Press,1996.也可以参见邓肯·肯尼迪(Duncan Kennedy)和劳拉·纳德(Laura Nader)的许多著作。

[151]See A.Gambaro & R.Sacco, Sistemi Giuridici Comparati, UTET,1996,240 ff.

[152]See Upham,参见引注137.See also J.H.Moitry,Le Droit Japonais, Presses Universitaires de France,1988.

[153]See R.C.Keith, China's Struggle for the Rule of Law, Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1994; T.Jingzhou, Le Droit Chinois Contemporain, Presses Universitaires de France,1991; Cavalieri,“Il Virus Della Legalità: Caratteristiche e Implicazioni Della Riforma Giuridica Cinese”, ISESAO, Bocconi University,1996.

[154]See P.Legrand,“European Legal Systems are not Converging”, 45 Int'l & Comp.L.Q.52 (1996); De Witte,“The Convergence Debate”, 3 Maastricht J.Eur.Comp.L.(1996).

[155]我采用了下列文献中的这一观点:Ugo Mattei,“Why the Wind Changed: Intellectual Leadership in Western Law”, 43 Am.J.Comp.L.199 (1994), and in Mattei,“The New Ethiopian Constitution: First Thoughts on Ethnic Federalism and the Reception of Western Law”, in Elisabetta Grande ed., Transplants, Innovation, and Legal Tradition in the Horn of Africa, Torino: L'Harmattan Italia, 1995.

[156]施勒辛格亦经常采用这一区分,参见R.B.Schlesinger, H.Baade, M.Damaska & P.Herzog, Comparative Law: Cases, Text Materials, Foundation Press,p.545 (5th ed.1988 & Supp.1994).在民法的导论中亦经常使用这一二分法。

[157]See Drobnig,“Das neue Niederländsche Burgerliche Gesetzbuch aus Vergleichender und Deutscher Sucht”, 1 Eur.Rev.Priv.L.171 (1993); Ioriatti,“Il Nuovo Codice Civile dei Paesi Bassi”, in Walrer Bigiavi & Alberto Trabucchi,Rivista di Diritto Civile,1992,p.117; D.Tallon,“The New Dutch Civil Code in a Comparative Perspective: A French View Point”, 1 Eur.Rev.Priv.L.189(1993);A.S.Hartkamp,“Civil Code Revision in the Nederlands”, in P.C.Haanappel,Ejan Mackaay, Nieuw Nederlands Burgerlijk Wetboek Het Vermogensrecht, Kluwer, Deventer,1990, p.15.

[158]新近讨论的法国例子可参见普罗文(Provine)在下述文献中的有关章节:H.Jacob, E.Blankenburg,D.M.Provine & J.Sanders, Courts, Law and Politics in Comparative Perspective, Yale University Press, 1996, 177 ff.

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